![]() These studies provided a total of 408 comparisons of plant regeneration between protected, natural or near-natural forests and forests disturbed by humans ( Fig. We identified 145 studies of 247 woody plant species covering 34 countries and all 12 forest and woodland biomes according to the WWF ecoregion classification 10. Here we present the first comprehensive study analysing effects of human forest disturbance across ecological processes that are essential for the regeneration of forest ecosystems. Including these later stages is indispensable to identify the processes that are most sensitive to human disturbance globally. seed predation and recruitment, are missing. ![]() In contrast, comparable and quantitative analyses of the effects of human disturbance on later stages of the plant life cycle, e.g. Especially, the pollinator crisis and its potential implications for food security 8 and the consequences of the loss of large seed-dispersing animals on forest structure and global carbon storage 9 have received great attention in the scientific community and beyond. Meta-studies to date have compiled evidence about negative effects of human disturbance on plant regeneration, but have focused on single processes, in particular on those early in the plant life cycle, such as pollination and seed dispersal 5, 6, 7. Such a meta-analysis could reveal potential breaking points in the regeneration cycle, which is essential for prioritizing forest conservation efforts. To understand which of these processes are most sensitive to human disturbance, we performed a global comparative assessment across regeneration processes. Processes that facilitate transitions include pollination, seed dispersal, and recruitment while processes such as seed predation and herbivory are detrimental 4. ![]() ![]() Several processes determine the transitions between these stages. Plant regeneration comprises a cycle of life stages from seeds to seedlings and adult plants 4. To foster the resilience and ensure the long-term stability of forests, the regeneration of woody plants is critical 3. Forest ecosystems worldwide have undergone severe losses in biodiversity and ecosystem functioning 1, 2. ![]()
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